Mexico obtained independence from Spain in 1821 which meant that Arizona and New Mexico became Mexican provinces. Briefly described below are some of the American Indian events in these Mexican provinces during the 1820s.
The Pueblos are the village agriculturists of New Mexico and Northern Arizona. The Pueblos are not a single cultural group: they are politically, linguistically and culturally divergent. In addition to the Pueblos, the Mexican government also had to deal with nomadic groups, such as the Comanches (a group of Central Numic-speaking tribes closely related to the Shoshones) and the Navajos (a group of Athabascan-speaking tribes closely related to the Apaches).
1821
In 1821 Mexico gained independence from Spain. In his chapter in the Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 9: Southwest, Marc Simmons reports:
“The Treaty of Córdoba, consummating Mexican independence, guaranteed racial equality, preservation of private property, and personal rights. By it all Indians were granted Mexican citizenship and protection of lands held under the Spanish regime.”
In the Plan of Iguala which proclaimed independence from Spain, Mexico did away with all legal distinctions regarding Indians and reaffirmed that Indians were citizens of Mexico on an equal basis with non-Indians. According to the Plan:
“All the inhabitants of New Spain, without distinction, whether Europeans, Africans or Indians are citizens of the Monarchy, with the rights to be employed in any post, according to merits and virtues.”
In his book Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on the Indians of the Southwest, 1533-1960, Edward H. Spicer reports:
“All Mexican-born persons were to be citizens, and all citizens were guaranteed equal protection in the political life.”
In New Mexico at the beginning of the Mexican period the Pueblo population was 9,034 (not including the Hopi). There were 20 Pueblo villages subordinate to provincial authority. In his chapter in the Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 9: Southwest, Marc Simmons reports:
“The Hopi, although within the territorial jurisdiction of New Mexico, continued their isolationism and remained free from Mexican sovereignty.”
Marc Simmons also reports:
“For the Indians the change in government meant relief from outside interference, both in their religious practices and in the management of village affairs, so that the shift from presumptuous Spanish paternalism to indifferent Mexican neglect was greeted with genuine enthusiasm.”
The Mexican regime, however, while recognizing the Spanish land grants to the Pueblos, did little to actually enforce Indian land and water rights.
In New Mexico, a Comanche delegation traveled to Santa Fe to receive their annual gifts. The newly formed Mexican government, however, did not provide the gifts—something which the Comanche had received for 35 years and which they viewed as a perpetual privilege. In response, the Comanche began raiding the nearby villages, pillaging the houses, killing sheep and cows, and raping two women.
1822
In New Mexico, the newly formed Mexican government negotiated a treaty with the Navajos. Under the treaty, Segundo was now recognized as the head chief of the Navajos. The treaty called for an exchange of prisoners and the freedom of the Navajos to travel and trade throughout New Mexico.
The Mexican government appointed a new governor who ignored the previous treaty. The new governor sent the Navajos an ultimatum to return prisoners, to convert to Catholicism, and to resettle in villages around the missions. In an article in the New Mexico Historical Review, historian Douglas Richmond reports:
“The new governor ignored the fact that previous Spanish attempts to resettle the Navajos had failed.”
1823
In Arizona, Mexicans under the leadership of Jose Antonio Vizcarra chased a group of Navajos led by Juanico who had been raiding Mexican homesteaders. The Mexicans encountered a group of Paiutes with goats and without warning attacked them. The Mexicans killed four men and took seven captives who they intended to sell as slaves in New Mexico. When Vizcarra realized that the Indians were Paiutes and not the Navajos who they had been chasing, he released them. He explained his mistake by saying that he thought only the Navajo had goats.
In New Mexico, the Mexican government negotiated a treaty with the Navajos. The treaty was signed by two Navajo captains – Batolome Baca and Juan Antonio Sandoval. The treaty required: (1) the Navajos to hand over all prisoners, (2) Navajo prisoners to be returned unless they wanted to become Christians, (3) the Navajos were to return all stolen goods, and (4) the Navajos were to accept Christianity and settle in pueblos. The peace established by the treaty, according to oral tradition, was violated before the ink was dry.
1824
In 1824, following a military campaign through Navajo territory, the Mexican government negotiated a treaty with the Navajos that called for a mutual exchange of prisoners. Even though Mexican law prohibited slavery, the use of Indian slaves was still common at this time, and many Indians were being held as slaves.
1826
In 1826, the Comanches under the leadership of Cordero, Ysacoroco, and Estrellas signed a peace treaty with the Mexicans. Under the new treaty, the Pecos River was established as the boundary for Comanche territory and the Comanches agreed not to cross the Pecos without notifying the Comandante General. The Comanches agreed not to interfere with traffic along the Santa Fe Trail and to help the caravans when necessary. There was to be an annual presentation of gifts from the Mexican government at Santa Fe and Béxar.
1828
In 1828, the Mexicans met with some 600 Comanches on the Gallians River in New Mexico. The Comanches selected Toro Echicero (Sorcerer Bull) as head chief. The Mexicans and the Comanches formalized a treaty in which the Comanche promised to refrain from raiding, provided that gifts would be made available to them.
More American Indian histories
Indians 101: The United States invades Mexico to destroy a Kickapoo village
Indians 101: American Indians and Mexico 200 years ago, 1825
Indians 101: Indians and Mexico 200 years ago, 1822
Indians 101: Mexico and American Indians 200 years ago, 1821
Indians 101: American Indians in Mexican Texas, 1821-1836
Indians 101: Emancipating California's Mission Indians in 1833-1834
Indians 201: The Pueblos and the United States, 1846 to 1876
Indians 201: The Kickapoo War against Texas
